Unit 1: Logic
1.1 Arguments – The Basics
1.1.1 What Is An Argument?
In philosophy, an argument is a connected series of statements, including at least one premise, intended to demonstrate that another statement, the conclusion, is true. The statements that serve as premises and conclusions are sometimes referred to as “propositions.” Statements (or propositions) are declarative sentences.
Arguments offer proof for a claim, or conclusion.
A premise is a statement that supports, or helps lead to, an argument’s conclusion.
A conclusion is the statement that is inferred (reasoned) from the argument’s premises.
Arguments are “inferential”; they intend to “infer” something. The process by which we reason in order to reach a conclusion is referred to as inference.
Quite often arguments have two or more premises and require multiple inferential steps to reach the conclusion. One type of argument, called an immediate inference, has a single premise (a single inferential step) supporting its conclusion. Here’s an example:
Conclusion: Therefore, it is false that all dogs are good house pets.
We will encounter examples of more elaborate arguments in the section 1.3 “Argument Types.”
When “doing philosophy,” we examine arguments made to support claims, or positions, put forth by philosophers on various questions. If we are not convinced by an argument, our pursuit, as students of philosophy, is to devise an objection (or rebuttal) argument to demonstrate that the original argument is defective. A rebuttal argument, too, is a claim (conclusion) supported by reasons (premises).
1.1.2 Identifying Arguments
When we read or listen (whether it be philosophical writings or news stories or lectures or political speeches or conversation partners), it is important to differentiate between arguments and other language that is not inferential. Non-inferential language does not offer proof for a claim. It may take various forms including (but not limited to) explanations, examples, reports, announcements, and so forth.
“Signal words” in speech or text can serve as alerts that there may be an argument afoot.
The word “because” and all of its synonyms may alert a reader (or listener) that a premise, or reason. is being provided to support a claim.
Examples of words and phrases that may signal a premise:
| as | due to | on the ground that |
| as indicated by | for | owing to |
| as a result of | for the reason that | seeing that |
| because | in as much as | since |
| being that | in that | thanks to |
| by reason of | in view of | through |
| by virtue of | is inferred from | whereas |
The word “therefore” and its synonyms are clues that a conclusion, or claim, is being made.
Examples of words and phrases that may signal a conclusion:
| accordingly | [it] follows that | thence |
| as a result | [it] proves that | therefore |
| consequently | hence | [we] conclude that |
| for this reason | so | [we] infer that |
| implies that | thus | whence |
Signal words can be helpful in identifying arguments, but keep these caveats in mind:
- Argument signal words are not always present when an argument is being made.
- Sometimes words that could function as signal words for an argument are used in other contexts, where there is no argument present.
Arguments that we encounter in philosophy texts and elsewhere are in ordinary language. Ordinary-language arguments are not in the tidy format used in argument examples in our Logic Unit text, with premises and conclusion clearly identified. Skill in deciphering arguments made in ordinary-language is a useful capability in all corners of life, not just in understanding philosophical texts.
Video
This video reinforces and deepens your understanding of the content in Section 1.1. You may disregard the presenter’s initial remarks where a larger set of videos is introduced ; right now, we are interested in Part 1.
Check Your Understanding
