Chapter 12.9: China

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China Religious Teachings

Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism were the dominant teachings of religions in Imperial China and most individuals combined all three in their daily lives.

Each of these teachings is represented by paintings in The British Museum, most notably by The Admonitions Scroll after Gu Kaizhi (image left) and the cache of Buddhist scroll paintings from the eighth to tenth century that had been rolled up and sealed away in the eleventh century in Cave 17 at Dunhuang’s Caves of the Thousand Buddhas.

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The First Emperor and the Terra Cotta Warriors

The First Emperor Qin Shihuang (259-210 B.C.E.) conquered much in this life, but his driving purpose was even greater; he sought to conquer death. In order to achieve immortality, he built himself a tomb—a vast underground city guarded by a life-size terracotta army including warriors, infantrymen, horses, chariots and all their attendant armor and weaponry.

The underground terracotta army found in the First Emperor’s burial complex is undoubtedly one of the most remarkable and mysterious discoveries from the ancient world. A sprawling citadel has been unearthed, complete with gardens and stables, bronze ritual vessels, jade jewelry, and a wealth of gold and silver ornaments.

Besides revealing much about an ancient way of life, observing the physical construction of the underground complex and the methodical production of the figures reveals a set of themes from which we gain a window of insight to the First Emperor’s worldview and enduring influence.

Innovation

The First Emperor is known for stunning innovations that consolidated his rule through modernization. During his reign, he introduced the standardization of currency, writing, measurements and more. He connected cities and states with advanced systems of roads and canals. He is also credited with continuing the construction of the Great Wall, which is perhaps the most widely-known symbol still associated with China to this day.

He is regarded as a military genius, and while his methods included massacre and destruction, some claim that his ultimate success at bringing the states together justifies the violence, a necessary cost of nation-building. We also see the first assembly-line style production in the creation of his terracotta warriors, horses and chariots.

Immortality

Perhaps the most fascinating aspect of the burial complex is what it suggests about the young Emperor’s obsession with immortality. Driven to conquer death itself, the eventual First Emperor ascended to the throne of the Qin state at age of 13 and immediately began to plan his burial, and more importantly, his underground palace, a mausoleum attended by an army including over 7,000 terracotta warriors horses, chariots and weaponry intended to protect him in the afterlife.

The First Emperor envisioned a subterranean domain that would parallel his worldly existence after corporal death. According to Han-dynasty historian Sima Qian, the First Emperor lined his burial complex with a treasury of riches and piles of precious gemstones said to represent the stars, sun and moon. He was deeply concerned with the universe and looked to the cosmos as a guide for crossing over to an immortal existence. Excavation also revealed other mysterious findings, like strangely high levels of mercury and evidence that the poisonous substance coursed through an intricate system of underground troughs, replicating the topography of the actual rivers and seas carving the surrounding landscape. Some suggest that the emperor believed mercury had life-giving power and so surrounded himself with the toxic element, believing it was yet another way he might live forever.

Unification

Of all the accomplishments from this extraordinary period, the unification of China is, without question, the greatest symbol of the Qin dynasty’s power and influence. Born in a time of turmoil in China’s history, known as the Warring States period (475-221 B.C.E.), The First Emperor founded the short-lived Qin dynasty (221-206 B.C.E.). By 221 B.C.E., he merged the seven warring states into one nation and took the name Qin Shihuang, which means First Emperor. He left a legacy of a centralized and bureaucratic state that would be carried onto successive dynasties over the next two millennia.

Prior to his taking the throne, the Qin state had been in existence for over half a century—under the single clan Ying though never under the rule of one individual. The rulers of the State of Qin had gradually expanded their domain over the centuries, but the slow effort culminated in ultimate victory when The First Emperor succeeded in uniting the once-divided empire.

Archaeology

When the burial complex was first discovered by farmers in 1974, archaeologists set to work on one of the most astonishing ancient sites on record. The excavation uncovered a sprawling citadel with thousands of warriors, each designed with a unique face and clothing. In addition to the warriors themselves, the dig uncovered horses, chariots, bronze ritual vessels, jade jewelry, and gold and silver ornaments. According to historian Sima Qian, the emperor so feared that his artisans “might disclose all the treasure that was in the tomb, . . [that] after the burial and sealing up of the treasures, the middle gate was shut and the outer gate closed to imprison all the artisans and laborers, so that no one came out.”

The story of the burial complex is also fascinating because it was conceived by such a very young individual. Court records reveal that, despite taking the throne at the age of 13 (in 246 B.C.E.), the eventual emperor ordered construction to begin almost immediately. Enormous numbers of laborers worked on the project, which was halted as the dynasty neared collapse. To date, four pits have been partially excavated. Three contain terracotta soldiers, horse-drawn chariots and weapons. The fourth pit was found empty, a testament to the original unfinished construction.

One of the most extraordinary features of the terracotta warriors is that each appears to have distinct features—an incredible feat of craftsmanship and production. Despite the custom construction of these figures, studies of their proportions reveal that their frames were created using an assembly production system that paved the way for advances in mass production and commerce.

Archaeologists estimate that the objects, including figures, horses, and weapons, number in the thousands, though the true total may never be known.

History of Chinese Porcelain

Porcelain traces its origins back to ancient China, emerging during the Tang dynasty (618–907) in a basic early form. It wasn’t until the Yuan dynasty (1279–1368) that the refined porcelain later recognized in Europe took shape. This is the variety that Marco Polo encountered and later introduced to Europe in the 14th century.

By the 16th century, with global trade routes more firmly established, Chinese porcelain began to be exported to Europe, where demand for this elegant material quickly grew.

Despite its popularity, European artisans struggled for centuries to replicate the technique. It wasn’t until the early 1700s that German alchemist Johann Friedrich Böttger discovered the correct method, leading to the creation of Europe’s first porcelain factory in Meissen. Around the same time in England, bone china emerged as a new type of porcelain. This variant incorporated calcined bone ash, giving it enhanced strength, translucency, and a creamy white color. While traditional hard porcelain is strong, it is prone to chipping and often carries a slight bluish or gray hue unless specially processed. Bone china, on the other hand, is both durable and aesthetically refined, making it easier to produce and more resilient against damage.

A Few Types of Chinese Porcelain

Chinese porcelain has evolved over centuries, with each era showcasing distinct styles and techniques. Below are three notable types that highlight the artistry and innovation of their respective periods:

• Tang Sancai (700–900 AD): This style, meaning “Tang Three Colors,” became popular during the Tang Dynasty. It featured a signature blend of three main colors—green, brown, and creamy white—and was commonly used for decoration and in tombs as funerary objects.
• White Porcelain (1000–1400 AD): Widely used during the Song Dynasty, this type of porcelain stood out for its smooth, bright surface that resembled jade. Its design focused on simplicity and elegance, making it a classic example of Chinese ceramic artistry.
• Blue and White Porcelain (1400–1700 AD): Though its roots trace back to the Tang and Song dynasties, this porcelain style truly flourished in the Yuan period. It features bold cobalt blue designs painted beneath a clear white glaze and is one of the most famous and widely recognized forms of Chinese porcelain.

Tang Dynasty Ceramics

The Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) is well known for its lively and vividly painted tomb figures. These pieces—often shaped like horses, camels, and officials—were made from low-fired earthenware and created specifically for burial purposes. Although they are widely admired today, they were not considered cutting-edge in terms of ceramic craftsmanship at the time, nor were they especially valued by collectors.

Most of the lead-glazed Sancai (三彩), meaning “three-colored” ceramics, were produced by three kilns in northern China. These wares were commonly used to decorate the tombs of the upper class for over 150 years during the Tang period.

Optional Videos: Other works in Chinese art through the years